(1977). One of these motives may predominate over the others, but they all may be present. Self-efficacy is not about whether you believe that you are intelligent in general, whether you always like working with mechanical things, or think that you are generally a likeable person. The variation in these theories is due to disagreement about which cognitive factors are essential to motivation and how those cognitive factors might be influenced by the environment. The purpose of the original expectancy-value model was to predict students' achievement behaviors within an educational context. She had them to thank for keeping her mind on the work. (2006). They may become preoccupied, in fact, with satisfying whatever need has not been met and thus exclude or avoid activities that might otherwise be interesting, educational, or important. Autonomy strengthens self-efficacy and self-determinationtwo valued and motivating attitudes described earlier in this chapter. On the other hand, kindness, optimism, positive feedback, and encouragement can positivley affect students' motivation to learn. Motivation Theories on Learning. Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. Jason, on the other hand, enjoys the challenges of balancing chemical equations. The most common version of the behavioral perspective on motivation is the theory of operant conditioningassociated with B. F. Skinner (1938, 1957). Motives are affected by the kind of goals set by studentswhether they are oriented to mastery, performance, failure-avoidance, or social contact. Psychological Perspectives on the Role of Motivation in Learning Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual, while extrinsic motivation comes from outside the individual. The advantage in grades occurs both in the short term (with individual assignments) and in the long term (with overall grade point average when graduating). More optimistic individuals, in contrast, are more likely to attribute a problem to outside sources, to see it as specific to a particular situation or activity, and to see it as temporary or time-limited.