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Learners mastery and performance goals may also influence learning and achievement through indirect effects on cognition. and exercises that directly target how students interpret their experiences, particularly their challenges in school and during learning. They can operate separately (e.g., an African American) or in combination (an African American male student) (Oyserman, 2009). However, some studies have suggested that task valuation seems to be the strongest predictor of behaviors associated with motivation, such as choosing topics and making decisions about participation in training (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2008). Interest is also important in adult learning in part because students and trainees with little interest in a topic may show higher rates of absenteeism and lower levels of performance (Ackerman et al., 2001). Learners who believe intelligence is malleable, she suggested, are predisposed toward adopting mastery goals, whereas learners who believe intelligence is fixed tend to orient toward displaying competence and adopting performance goals (Burns and Isbell, 2007; Dweck, 1986; Dweck and Master, 2009; Mangels et al., 2006). Second, the interventions adopt a student-centric perspective that takes into account the students subjective experience in and out of school. Not a MyNAP member yet? HPL I made the point that having clear and specific goals that are challenging but manageable has a positive effect on performance, and researchers have proposed explanations. structure that apply, and as a result, students may shift their goal orientation to succeed in the new context (Anderman and Midgley, 1997). Similarly, activities that learners perceive as threatening to their sense of competence or self-esteem (e.g., conditions that invoke stereotype threat, discussed below3) may reduce learners motivation and performance even (and sometimes especially) when they intend to perform well. A recent field study, for example, suggests that incentives do not always lead to reduced engagement after the incentive ends (Goswami and Urminsky, 2017). Stereotype threat also may have long-term deleterious effects because it can lead people to conclude that they are not likely to be successful in a domain of performance (Aronson, 2004; Steele, 1997).